Chapter 2: Federalism

Political Science · CBSE Class 10 · Democratic Politics-II

📖 Chapter 2: Federalism (CBSE Class 10 Political Science — Democratic Politics-II). What federalism is, its key features, coming-together vs holding-together federations, how the Indian Constitution divides power (three Lists), how federalism is practised, and decentralisation / local government.

1. What is Federalism?

Federalism is a system of government in which power is divided between a central authority and various constituent units (states/provinces). A federation usually has two levels of government — one for the whole country (common national-interest subjects) and one at the level of states/provinces (day-to-day administration). Both levels enjoy their power independent of each other and are separately answerable to the people.

🎯 Dual objective of federalism: (1) safeguard and promote the unity of the country, and (2) accommodate regional diversity. For it to work, two things are crucial: mutual trust and an agreement to live together.

Federal vs Unitary

Unitary system	Federal system
Only one level of government, OR sub-units are subordinate to the centre	Two or more levels, each with its own jurisdiction
Centre can order the provincial/local government	Centre cannot order the state government to do something
Sub-units answerable to the centre	Each level separately answerable to the people

2. Seven Key Features of Federalism

There are two or more levels (tiers) of government.
Different tiers govern the same citizens, but each has its own jurisdiction in legislation, taxation and administration.
Jurisdictions are specified in the Constitution — so each tier's existence and authority is constitutionally guaranteed.
Fundamental constitutional provisions cannot be unilaterally changed by one level — change needs the consent of both levels.
Courts interpret the Constitution and the powers of each level; the highest court acts as an umpire in disputes.
Sources of revenue for each level are clearly specified to ensure financial autonomy.
The federal system has the dual objective — unity of the country + accommodation of regional diversity.

3. Two Routes to a Federation

Coming-together	Holding-together
Independent states come together on their own to form a bigger unit (pool sovereignty, keep identity, increase security)	A large country divides its power between constituent states and the national government
Examples: USA, Switzerland, Australia	Examples: India, Spain, Belgium
Constituent states usually have equal power, strong vis-à-vis the centre	Centre tends to be more powerful; units often have unequal powers, some get special powers

4. What Makes India a Federal Country?

India emerged after a painful Partition; several princely states joined it. The Constitution declares India a "Union of States" — it does not use the word federation, but is based on federal principles. Originally a two-tier system (Union + State); a third tier (Panchayats & Municipalities) was added later.

Three-fold Distribution of Legislative Powers

List	Who legislates	Examples
Union List	Union Government alone	Defence, foreign affairs, banking, communications, currency
State List	State Governments alone	Police, trade, commerce, agriculture, irrigation
Concurrent List	Both (Union law prevails on conflict)	Education, forest, trade unions, marriage, adoption, succession

🎯 Residuary subjects (not in any list, e.g. computer software) → the Union Government has the power to legislate.

Unequal Powers — Special & Weaker Units

Special-status states (Assam, Nagaland, Arunachal Pradesh, Mizoram, etc.) enjoy special powers under Article 371 due to peculiar social/historical circumstances — protection of land rights of indigenous people, their culture, and preferential government employment; outsiders cannot buy land/house there.

Union Territories (Chandigarh, Lakshadweep, Delhi) are too small to be states and cannot merge with existing states — they do not have the powers of a state; the Central Government has special powers over them.

🎯 Changing the power-sharing arrangement is hard: a change must be passed by both Houses of Parliament with a two-thirds majority AND then ratified by the legislatures of at least half the states.

5. How is Federalism Practised? (Beyond the Constitution)

Constitutional provisions are necessary but not sufficient. The real success of Indian federalism rests on the nature of democratic politics. Three major strengtheners:

(a) Linguistic States

After 1947, boundaries of old states were redrawn so people speaking the same language lived in the same state. Some states were made on culture/ethnicity/geography (Nagaland, Uttarakhand, Jharkhand). Leaders feared disintegration, but linguistic reorganisation actually made the country more united and administration easier.

(b) Language Policy

No language was made the national language. Hindi is the official language (mother tongue of only ~44% Indians per 2011 Census). Besides Hindi, 21 other Scheduled Languages (22 total in the Eighth Schedule). English's use for official purposes was to stop in 1965, but non-Hindi states (esp. Tamil Nadu, where it turned violent) demanded its continuation — so the Centre agreed to continue English alongside Hindi. Hindi is promoted, not imposed. This flexibility helped India avoid Sri Lanka's fate.

(c) Centre–State Relations

For long, the same party ruled the Centre and most states, so states didn't act as autonomous units; the Centre often misused the Constitution to dismiss rival-party state governments — undermining federalism. After 1990: rise of regional parties + era of coalition governments at the Centre → a new culture of power sharing and respect for state autonomy. A major Supreme Court judgement made arbitrary dismissal of state governments difficult. Federal power sharing is more effective today.

6. Decentralisation & Local Government (Third Tier)

India is too vast for just two tiers (UP's population > Russia; Maharashtra ≈ Germany). Decentralisation = taking power from Central and State governments and giving it to local government — because many problems are best settled locally, people know their own localities, can participate directly, and it builds a habit of democratic participation (realising local self-government).

🎯 The big step — 1992 Constitutional Amendment made the third tier powerful:
• Regular elections to local bodies are now mandatory.
• Seats reserved for SC, ST and OBC.
• At least one-third positions reserved for women.
• An independent State Election Commission conducts panchayat/municipal elections.
• State governments must share some powers and revenue (varies state to state).

Structure of Local Government

Rural (Panchayati Raj)	Urban
Gram Panchayat — ward members (panch) + president (sarpanch); works under the Gram Sabha (all village voters)	Municipality (towns) — head: municipal chairperson
Panchayat Samiti / block / mandal — elected by panchayat members	Municipal Corporation (big cities) — head: Mayor
Zilla Parishad (district) — mostly elected; head: Zilla Parishad chairperson	Controlled by elected bodies of people's representatives

This is the largest experiment in democracy anywhere — about 36 lakh elected representatives. It deepened democracy and increased women's voice. But: gram sabhas not held regularly, most states have not transferred significant powers/resources — so we are still far from real self-government.

📘 NCERT Textbook Exercise Answers

1Locate on an outline map of India: Manipur, Sikkim, Chhattisgarh and Goa.

Map activity. Locations: Manipur — far north-east (border with Myanmar); Sikkim — north-east, between Nepal, Bhutan and China; Chhattisgarh — central India (east of Madhya Pradesh); Goa — west coast, south of Maharashtra. Shade each state and label it on a blank political map.

2Identify and shade three federal countries (other than India) on a world map.

Map activity. Any three of: USA (North America), Brazil (South America), Australia, Canada, Switzerland, Germany, Nigeria, Russia. Shade and label three of these on a blank world map.

3Point out one feature in the practice of federalism in India that is similar to and one that is different from Belgium.

Similar: In both India and Belgium, power is divided between the central and regional/state governments by the Constitution, and both levels enjoy constitutionally guaranteed powers (power sharing to accommodate diversity). Different: India is a 'holding-together' federation where the Central Government is more powerful and some states have special status, whereas in Belgium power was devolved outward to regions and there is a special Community Government (elected on the basis of language community) — a feature India does not have.

4What is the main difference between a federal form of government and a unitary one? Explain with an example.

In a federal government, power is divided between a central authority and constituent units, each with its own constitutionally guaranteed jurisdiction; the centre cannot order the state to do something. In a unitary government, either there is only one level, or sub-units are subordinate to the centre, which can pass orders to them. Example: India is federal — the Tamil Nadu government has its own powers (e.g. over police) for which it is not answerable to the Centre; Sri Lanka is essentially unitary — the national government holds all effective power.

5State any two differences between the local government before and after the Constitutional amendment of 1992.

Before 1992: (i) Elections to local bodies were not held regularly; (ii) local governments had no powers or resources of their own and were directly under state control; no reservation of seats. After 1992: (i) It became constitutionally mandatory to hold regular elections, conducted by an independent State Election Commission; (ii) seats were reserved for SC/ST/OBC and at least one-third for women, and states were required to share some powers and revenue.

6Fill in the blanks: Since the United States is a ___ type of federation, all the constituent States have equal powers and are ___ vis-à-vis the federal government. But India is a ___ type of federation and some States have more power than others. In India, the ___ government has more powers.

(1) coming-together; (2) strong; (3) holding-together; (4) Central / Union.

7Three reactions to India's language policy — give an argument and example supporting any one. Sangeeta: accommodation strengthened national unity. Arman: language-based states divided us. Harish: it only consolidated English's dominance.

Supporting Sangeeta (accommodation → unity): By refusing to impose Hindi and allowing English to continue alongside it after 1965, and by creating linguistic states, India accommodated diverse language groups — unlike Sri Lanka's 'Sinhala-only' policy which caused civil war. Example: Tamil Nadu's anti-Hindi agitation was defused when the Centre agreed to continue English, keeping the state within the Union. This flexibility strengthened, rather than weakened, national unity.

8The distinguishing feature of a federal government is: (a) National government gives some powers to provincial governments (b) Power distributed among legislature, executive, judiciary (c) Elected officials exercise supreme power (d) Governmental power is divided between different levels of government.

(d) Governmental power is divided between different levels of government. This vertical division between tiers — each with constitutionally guaranteed jurisdiction — is what distinguishes a federation. Option (b) describes separation of powers (horizontal), and (a) describes mere delegation (as in a unitary system), not federalism.

9Group these subjects under Union, State and Concurrent Lists: A. Defence; B. Police; C. Agriculture; D. Education; E. Banking; F. Forests; G. Communications; H. Trade; I. Marriages.

Union List: A. Defence, E. Banking, G. Communications. State List: B. Police, C. Agriculture, H. Trade. Concurrent List: D. Education, F. Forests, I. Marriages.

10Which pair (level of government / power to make laws) is NOT correctly matched? (a) State government — State List (b) Central government — Union List (c) Central and State governments — Concurrent List (d) Local governments — Residuary powers.

(d) Local governments — Residuary powers is wrongly matched. Residuary powers (subjects not in any list) belong to the Union Government, not local governments. The other three pairs are correctly matched.

11Match List I with List II: 1. Union of India — A. Prime Minister; 2. State — C. Governor; 3. Municipal Corporation — D. Mayor; 4. Gram Panchayat — B. Sarpanch.

1 → A (Union of India — Prime Minister), 2 → C (State — Governor), 3 → D (Municipal Corporation — Mayor), 4 → B (Gram Panchayat — Sarpanch).

12Consider the statements. A. In a federation, powers of federal and provincial governments are clearly demarcated. B. India is a federation because Union and State powers are specified in the Constitution with exclusive jurisdiction. C. Sri Lanka is a federation because it is divided into provinces. D. India is no longer a federation because some powers were devolved to local bodies. Which are correct? (a) A, B and C (b) A, C and D (c) A and B only (d) B and C only

(c) A and B only. A and B correctly describe federalism and India's case. C is wrong — Sri Lanka is effectively unitary; mere division into provinces does not make it a federation. D is wrong — adding a third tier (local government) strengthens federalism rather than ending it.

🔥 Extra Practice — Very Difficult / HOTS (competency-based, source & case-based, assertion-reason)

A. Source-/Case-Based Questions

1Case: Country X has two levels of government written into its constitution, but the national legislature can redraw state boundaries and transfer state subjects to itself by a simple majority, with no state consent. Its highest court cannot review such laws. (i) Is Country X truly federal? (ii) Which two of the seven features does it fail? (iii) Contrast with India's amendment procedure.

(i) No — it is federal only in name. (ii) It fails: Feature 4 (fundamental provisions can be changed unilaterally by one level without the other's consent) and Feature 5 (no court as umpire to interpret and protect the division of powers). (iii) In India, altering the Union–State power-sharing needs a two-thirds majority in both Houses plus ratification by at least half the state legislatures, and the Supreme Court/High Courts settle disputes — so one level cannot swallow the other's powers.

2Source: "After 1990, no single party won a Lok Sabha majority; national parties formed coalitions with regional parties, and a Supreme Court judgement made arbitrary dismissal of state governments difficult." (i) Name the two developments that strengthened federalism here. (ii) Explain the cause–effect link between coalition politics and respect for state autonomy. (iii) How is this different from the pre-1990 situation?

(i) The rise of regional parties / era of coalition governments, and a Supreme Court judgement restraining arbitrary dismissal of state governments. (ii) Because national parties needed regional partners to form and keep a government, they had to accommodate regional demands and respect state autonomy — a new culture of power sharing. (iii) Before 1990 the same party often ruled the Centre and states, states did not act autonomously, and the Centre misused the Constitution to dismiss rival state governments.

3Case: Porto Alegre (Brazil) divides the city into wards; residents meet to decide the city budget, and ~20,000 take part each year — buses now reach poor colonies and slum-dwellers cannot be evicted without resettlement. (i) Which principle of democracy does this realise? (ii) Name the comparable Indian institution and the Indian state that tried something similar. (iii) Why is such participation hard to achieve in Indian gram sabhas?

(i) Decentralisation combined with participative democracy / local self-government — people directly decide spending. (ii) The Gram Sabha (all village voters) is the comparable institution; Kerala tried a similar people's-planning experiment. (iii) In India gram sabhas are not held regularly, and most state governments have not transferred significant powers or resources to local bodies, so real participation and self-government remain limited.

B. Assertion–Reason (choose: a = both true & R explains A; b = both true, R does not explain A; c = A true, R false; d = A false, R true)

4Assertion (A): In India, all states do not have identical powers. Reason (R): India is a 'holding-together' federation, in which units may have unequal powers and some enjoy special status.

(a) Both true, and R correctly explains A. Because India is a holding-together federation, states like Assam, Nagaland, Mizoram, etc. enjoy special powers under Article 371, while Union Territories have fewer powers — so powers are not identical.

5Assertion (A): The formation of linguistic states weakened India and pushed it toward disintegration. Reason (R): Dividing states by language made people conscious of their language.

(d) A is false, R is partly true but does not support A. Leaders feared disintegration, but experience showed linguistic states made the country more united and administration easier. So A (that it weakened India) is false.

6Assertion (A): The Union Government can legislate on subjects not mentioned in any of the three Lists. Reason (R): The Constitution assigns residuary powers to the States.

(c) A is true, R is false. The Union does legislate on residuary subjects — but residuary powers belong to the Union, not the states, so R is false.

C. Analytical / 5-mark

7"Constitutional provisions are necessary but not sufficient for the success of federalism." Evaluate this statement with reference to India, using at least three factors beyond the Constitution.

The Constitution guarantees the division of powers, but Indian federalism succeeded because of democratic politics: (1) Linguistic reorganisation of states accommodated diversity and, contrary to fears, united the country; (2) a flexible language policy — promoting but not imposing Hindi, and retaining English after 1965 — avoided a Sri-Lanka-type conflict; (3) restructured Centre–State relations after 1990, with coalition governments, regional parties and a restraining Supreme Court judgement, deepened respect for state autonomy; and (4) the 1992 decentralisation gave constitutional strength to a third tier. Thus the spirit of federalism — mutual trust and a desire to live together — mattered as much as the text.

8Picture-the-scenario: A newly independent, linguistically diverse nation must choose between a Sri-Lanka-style and an India-style approach to language and power. Advise it on three design choices and justify each using this chapter.

(1) Do not crown a single majority language as the sole official language — recognise several languages and allow regions their own official language (India avoided conflict; Sri Lanka's 'Sinhala-only' act caused civil war). (2) Adopt federalism with constitutionally guaranteed tiers so no level can unilaterally strip another's powers — accommodating regional diversity while keeping unity. (3) Create linguistic/regional states and a decentralised third tier with reserved seats and regular local elections — this channels regional pride into the system rather than against it, building the trust and 'desire to live together' that federalism requires.